Vaccination: What You Need to Know Vaccination: What You Need to Know 1. Types of Vaccines: Live attenuated vaccines: Usually a weakened form of the wild virus, providing immunity similar to natural infection, often requiring only one dose. Examples: Measles, Mumps, Rubella (MMR), Chickenpox, Rotavirus, Oral Polio, BCG (Tuberculosis), Oral Typhoid. Highly affected by circulating…
Lysosomes and Peroxisomes Lysosomes and Peroxisomes Lysosomes Structure: Single-membrane organelle, enclosed by a lipid bilayer. Contains numerous hydrolytic enzymes capable of breaking down substances such as proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and carbohydrates. Size: 0.2 – 0.6 micrometers. The internal environment has a low pH (4.5 – 5.5). Lysosomal Membrane Proteins: Glycosylated, enhancing membrane stability. Important…
Amniotic Fluid in Pregnancy: Amniotic Fluid in Pregnancy: 1. When does amniotic fluid peak? Amniotic fluid peaks at week 34 of pregnancy, then gradually decreases over time. The older the fetus, the less amniotic fluid there is. 2. Who produces amniotic fluid? Amniotic fluid is produced mainly by the fetus through the baby’s skin and…
Premature Rupture of Membranes: Understanding and Management Premature Rupture of Membranes: Understanding and Management What is Premature Rupture of Membranes (PROM)? PROM occurs when the amniotic sac ruptures before the onset of labor, which includes signs such as vaginal discharge, abdominal pain, bulging of the amniotic sac, cervical effacement, cervical dilation, and cervical ripening. Valsalva…
Bacterial Genetics: Mechanisms and Applications Bacterial Genetics: Mechanisms and Applications 1. Concept: Pure culture: Bacteria originating from a single bacterial cell, possessing identical genetic material and exhibiting similar characteristics. Genetics: Preservation of stable bacterial traits across generations. 2. Mutations: Types of mutations: Spontaneous mutations: Occur naturally. Induced mutations: Triggered by external factors like chemicals or…
Nutritional Intravenous Fluid: Comprehensive Nourishment for Patients Nutritional Intravenous Fluid: Comprehensive Nourishment for Patients Nutritional intravenous fluid (NIVF) is a method of providing nutrition outside the digestive tract, meeting the daily nutritional needs of patients for extended periods. NIVF contains all essential nutrients, including: Carbohydrates: Provide energy for the body. Amino acids: Source of protein…
Urinary System Urinary System Kidneys: External features: Reddish-brown, flattened bean-shaped, with 2 surfaces (anterior, posterior), 2 borders (medial, lateral), and 2 poles (upper, lower). Location: Retroperitoneal, on either side of the lumbar vertebral column. The left kidney is higher than the right kidney by the width of one rib. Left kidney: The upper pole is…
General Pathophysiology – Circulatory Function General Pathophysiology – Circulatory Function Normal Function of the Heart Cardiac Output: The amount of blood the heart pumps into the aorta during one ventricular contraction. Normal value is 60 ml. Cardiac Output: The volume of blood pumped by the left ventricle into the aorta in one minute. Cardiac output…
Viral Diagnostic Immunological Tests Viral Diagnostic Immunological Tests To diagnose viral infections, two main types of tests are employed: 1. Immunological Tests: This method relies on detecting viral antigens in a sample of the patient’s body. Immunological tests are generally quick and easy to perform, making them suitable for initial screening. 2. Serological Tests: Serological…
Hemolytic Anemia – Bleeding Hemolytic Anemia – Bleeding Hemolytic Anemia Skull bone deformities in thalassemia: Appearance changes: round face, large head, prominent forehead, boney bump on the top of the head, flat nasal bridge. X-ray: thick skull, hair-on-end appearance, osteopenia. Laboratory findings: Blood test: Demonstrates rapid red blood cell destruction, increased hemoglobin degradation. Decreased red…