Blood Volume Expanders: When Blood Is Not Enough Blood Volume Expanders: When Blood Is Not Enough In emergencies like blood loss, internal bleeding, hypotension, and cardiovascular failure, the body needs a timely blood volume expansion to sustain life. However, there might not be enough blood available for transfusion. This is where blood volume expanders (BVE)…
Amniotic Fluid in Pregnancy: Amniotic Fluid in Pregnancy: 1. When does amniotic fluid peak? Amniotic fluid peaks at week 34 of pregnancy, then gradually decreases over time. The older the fetus, the less amniotic fluid there is. 2. Who produces amniotic fluid? Amniotic fluid is produced mainly by the fetus through the baby’s skin and…
Lysosomes and Peroxisomes Lysosomes and Peroxisomes Lysosomes Structure: Single-membrane organelle, enclosed by a lipid bilayer. Contains numerous hydrolytic enzymes capable of breaking down substances such as proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and carbohydrates. Size: 0.2 – 0.6 micrometers. The internal environment has a low pH (4.5 – 5.5). Lysosomal Membrane Proteins: Glycosylated, enhancing membrane stability. Important…
Nutritional Intravenous Fluid: Comprehensive Nourishment for Patients Nutritional Intravenous Fluid: Comprehensive Nourishment for Patients Nutritional intravenous fluid (NIVF) is a method of providing nutrition outside the digestive tract, meeting the daily nutritional needs of patients for extended periods. NIVF contains all essential nutrients, including: Carbohydrates: Provide energy for the body. Amino acids: Source of protein…
Bacterial Genetics: Mechanisms and Applications Bacterial Genetics: Mechanisms and Applications 1. Concept: Pure culture: Bacteria originating from a single bacterial cell, possessing identical genetic material and exhibiting similar characteristics. Genetics: Preservation of stable bacterial traits across generations. 2. Mutations: Types of mutations: Spontaneous mutations: Occur naturally. Induced mutations: Triggered by external factors like chemicals or…
Premature Rupture of Membranes: Understanding and Management Premature Rupture of Membranes: Understanding and Management What is Premature Rupture of Membranes (PROM)? PROM occurs when the amniotic sac ruptures before the onset of labor, which includes signs such as vaginal discharge, abdominal pain, bulging of the amniotic sac, cervical effacement, cervical dilation, and cervical ripening. Valsalva…
General Pathophysiology – Circulatory Function General Pathophysiology – Circulatory Function Normal Function of the Heart Cardiac Output: The amount of blood the heart pumps into the aorta during one ventricular contraction. Normal value is 60 ml. Cardiac Output: The volume of blood pumped by the left ventricle into the aorta in one minute. Cardiac output…
Urinary System Urinary System Kidneys: External features: Reddish-brown, flattened bean-shaped, with 2 surfaces (anterior, posterior), 2 borders (medial, lateral), and 2 poles (upper, lower). Location: Retroperitoneal, on either side of the lumbar vertebral column. The left kidney is higher than the right kidney by the width of one rib. Left kidney: The upper pole is…
Physical Growth in Children Physical Growth in Children Assessing Growth To assess physical growth in children, several indicators are considered, including: Anthropometric measurements: Height, weight, head circumference, chest circumference, arm circumference, etc. Bone age: Determining bone age based on X-ray images of the hand. Signs of sexual maturity: Appearance of pubic hair, breast development, voice…
Hemolytic Anemia – Bleeding Hemolytic Anemia – Bleeding Hemolytic Anemia Skull bone deformities in thalassemia: Appearance changes: round face, large head, prominent forehead, boney bump on the top of the head, flat nasal bridge. X-ray: thick skull, hair-on-end appearance, osteopenia. Laboratory findings: Blood test: Demonstrates rapid red blood cell destruction, increased hemoglobin degradation. Decreased red…